Aerobatics

One of mankind’s earliest known attempts to fly is known through the mythology of Daedalus and his son Icarus.

"Flying should be a graceful dance, not a battle. Know your machine, respect the sky, and never stop learning." – Bob Hoover

Not Meant to Fly, But We Do

Humans weren’t born to fly. We don’t have wings nor feathers. And yet—for as long as we’ve looked at the sky—we’ve dreamed of touching it. That dream has always come with risk.

One of the oldest stories we have is the myth of Icarus. Imprisoned with his father Daedalus, they crafted wings made of feathers and wax—ingenious, fragile, beautiful. Daedalus warned his son: don’t fly too low, or the sea’s mist will weigh you down. Don’t fly too high, or the sun will melt the wax. But Icarus, overwhelmed by the thrill of flight, by the sheer joy of defying gravity, soared upward—too far, too fast. The sun melted his wings, and he fell into the sea.

We often tell this story as a caution against pride. But it’s also a reflection of our human nature. Icarus didn’t fall because he flew—he fell because he forgot that flight, like freedom, demands respect. He mistook the feeling of power for invincibility. That’s a mistake pilots cannot afford to make.

Aerobatics is more than a performance. It's the soul of flying : honest, and demanding. It strips away the comfort of straight and level and asks: do you really know your aircraft? Do you really know yourself? Because when the sky turns upside down and the horizon disappears, it’s not just about training—it’s about instinct, clarity, and trust. You don't rise to the occasion; you fall to your level of preparation.

Bob Hoover understood that. He flew like few ever have—precise, graceful, and humble. A man who could pour iced tea while barrel-rolling a Commander didn’t do it for show. He did it to prove that true mastery is calm under pressure, that a pilot and a machine can move as one. He famously said, “A superior pilot uses his superior judgment to avoid situations which require the use of his superior skill.”

That’s not just clever—it’s gospel in the skies. Aerobatics isn’t about chasing danger. It’s about honoring it. About walking to the edge and learning how to listen before you leap. It’s what separates the pilot who’s memorized procedures from the one who feels the airplane, who senses a stall coming like a whisper in the controls. So yes, maybe we weren’t meant to fly. But we do it anyway—not out of arrogance, but out of wonder. Because in learning to fly, especially through the discipline of aerobatics, we come to understand something bigger than ourselves. We learn humility. We learn balance. We learn that the sky doesn’t owe us anything—and that every safe landing is a kind of quiet miracle.

ORIOL BELISARIO HURTADO

A bit of theoretical knowledge

FLIGHT DYNAMICS

Pilots are expected to make control inputs based on desired airplane reaction.

Control inputs appropriate at one point in the flight envelope might not be appropriate in another part of the flight envelope.
Pilots must have a fundamental understanding of flight dynamics in order to correctly determine the control input(s) necessary.

There must be a force, or a combination of forces, imposed on an airplane to achieve a desired trajectory. The generation of forces created by control inputs is the subject of aerodynamics .

A pilot has three sources of energy available to manage or manipulate the flight path of an airplane.

The term "energy state" describes how much of each kind of energy the airplane has available at any given time.

Pilots who understand the airplane energy state will be in a position to know instantly what options they may have to manoeuvre their airplane and therefore manage the trajectory.

The three sources of energy are:

Kinetic energy, which increases with increasing airspeed.
Potential energy, which is proportional to altitude.
Chemical energy, from the fuel in the tanks which can be converted to thrust.

These three types of energy can be traded, or exchanged:

Airspeed can be traded for altitude (kinetic to potential energy)
Altitude can be traded for airspeed (potential to kinetic energy)
Thrust can be converted into airspeed and/or altitude (chemical to either kinetic or potential energy)

Kinetic energy needs to be replenished (from potential or chemical energy), as it is continuously expended in the process of generating the aerodynamic forces acting on the airplane which result in controlled flight (lift and drag).

This process of consciously controlling the energy state of the airplane is referred to as "energy management".

The trading of energy must be accomplished with a view toward the final required energy state.

Angle of Attack and Stall

Wings and tail surfaces all produce lift forces in the same way. The figure below shows a cross section of a lifting surface and the familiar definition of angle of attack versus lift:

It is important to understand the dependence of lift on angle of attack. The figure below shows how lift varies with angle of attack for constant speed and air density.

As angle of attack is increased, lift increases proportionally and this increase in lift is generally linear up to a point.

At the critical angle of attack, the air moving over the upper surface can no longer remain attached to the surface, the flow breaks down and the surface is considered stalled.

Wing shape influences the lift curve slope as illustrated in the figure below by the coefficient of lift CL. The steepness of the slope affects the rate at which lift changes due to angle of attack. Straight wing and swept wings behave differently at higher angles of attack in turn affecting stall behavior.

For a straight wing, small differences in angle of attack produce notable changes in lift and potentially a quicker stall recovery when the angle of attack is reduced.

And always remember:

When the aerodynamic flow on the wing is stalled, the only possible mean to recover a normal flow regime is to decrease the AoA at a value lower than the AoA STALL.

Stall is an AoA problem only. It is NOT directly a speed issue.

The regulations

Under your FAA certification no o rating is needed to perform aerobatics, however under EASA license, you will need a rating to perform aerobatics. This rating consists of the following:

Regulation (EU) 2020/359

Holders of a pilot licence with privileges to fly aeroplanes or TMGs shall undertake aerobatic flights only if they hold an aerobatic rating in accordance with this regulation.

Applicants for an aerobatic rating must have completed:

At least 30 hours of flight time as PIC in aeroplanes or TMGs after the issuance of the licence.
A training course at a DTO or an ATO, which includes:
(i) Theoretical knowledge instruction appropriate for the rating.
(ii) At least 5 hours of aerobatic instruction in aeroplanes or TMGs with engine power.

Pre aerobatic training

The following maneuvers can be performed in any airplane, and you should be familiar and confident in each one. Mastering the basics will lay the foundation for your ability to safely execute more advanced techniques. Whether you're flying for leisure, training, or in more challenging conditions, these maneuvers are essential to your overall skill set and will build your confidence as a pilot.

Straight and level flight

In this situation, the aircraft is flying straight and level at a low airspeed while maintaining a high angle of attack (AoA). Here’s a breakdown of the key points:

Slow-Speed Regime: This refers to flying at low airspeeds, typically below the aircraft’s ideal cruising speed. At lower speeds, the aircraft’s lift-to-drag ratio worsens, and maintaining level flight requires a higher angle of attack to generate sufficient lift.
High Angle of Attack: The angle of attack is the angle between the relative airflow (or flight path) and the chord line of the wing. A high angle of attack means the wing is pointed steeply into the airflow, which increases lift but also increases drag. However, at low speeds, a higher AoA may be necessary to maintain level flight.

Summary of TEM in These Scenarios:

For the Slow-Speed, High AoA Condition:

Threats: Stall risk, high drag, and loss of control.
Errors: Overcontrolling, failure to monitor airspeed, and late recovery from stall.
TEM Actions: Maintain safe airspeed and AoA, use recovery techniques if a stall is imminent, and follow operational checklists.

For the High-Speed, Low AoA Condition:

Threats: Over-speeding, loss of lift in turbulence, and complacency.
Errors: Flying too fast, failure to account for high-speed dynamics, and failure to adjust AoA properly in turbulence.
TEM Actions: Monitor speed limits, maintain situational awareness, and adjust AoA as needed for varying conditions.

Steep turns

Fly 360-degree turns with at least 60 degrees of bank while maintaining a coordinated turn. Remember, the ball should be centered in your turn indicator. Do not allow yourself to gain or lose altitude—stay straight and level and remember to kick that rudder to keep the turn coordinated.

In a 60-degree-banked turn, the total load factor approaches 2G, or twice the force of gravity. That’s the force pushing you down in your seat when the bank angle is steep enough in a level turn. Without appropriate input on the pitch control, the airplane will not maintain altitude, one of the factors determining the quality of a steep turn demonstration.

One of the first things we need to understand about steep turns is that they increase the load factor imposed on the airplane. In normal, unaccelerated, straight-and-level flight, the airplane experiences exactly 1G of load, the force gravity exerts. That the airplane stays aloft is a result of the lift generated to overcome gravity. In a climb, the mount of lift generated exceeds that necessary to maintain level flight. In a descent, the lift generated is less than necessary. Both the airplane’s speed and the wings’ angles of attack figure prominently in how much lift is generated and, thus, the airplane’s trajectory.

Stalls

Stall is perhaps one of the most misunderstood aerodynamic phenomena — one that many pilots find intimidating and are often unfamiliar with. As we mentioned earlier, there are two fundamental principles to understand about stalls:

When the aerodynamic flow over the wing becomes stalled, the only way to recover is by reducing the angle of attack (AoA) to a value below the critical angle of attack.
A stall is purely an angle of attack issue — it is not directly related to airspeed.

Now, remember that at VS1G (the stall speed in a clean configuration at 1G), the aircraft is not actually stalled. Instead, it is flying at the minimum airspeed required to maintain level flight — meaning it's generating just enough lift to equal its weight. Importantly, the critical angle of attack never changes; it remains constant regardless of weight, airspeed, or configuration.

Spins

Spin Familiarity for Pre-Aerobatic Training

Familiarity with spins is a crucial part of pre-aerobatic training. The process is simple but requires practice and understanding of the fundamentals:

Start in Straight and Level Flight:
- Begin with the aircraft in a stable, straight, and level flight attitude.
Reduce Power to Idle:
- Bring the throttle to idle to minimize power and prevent recovery from a power-induced stall.
Maintain Back Pressure:
- Gradually apply back pressure to maintain altitude. As the airspeed decreases, the aircraft will enter a stall.
Initiate the Spin:
- Keep the full back pressure applied and kick the rudder in the direction you wish to spin. The aircraft will begin to rotate, and you'll enter into the spin.
Allow the Spin to Develop:
- Let the spin develop for about one and a half turns. This will help you become familiar with the sensation and forces involved in a spin.
Recover from the Spin:
- To recover, first center the rudder to the opposite direction of the turn to stop the spinning.
- Relax back pressure on the control yoke to break the stall.
- Return to straight and level flight as the aircraft recovers from the spin and the stall is cleared.

Types of Spins

a. Incipient Spin

The incipient spin is the phase of spin from the moment the aircraft stalls and begins to rotate, until the spin reaches a steady, fully developed state.
This phase is typically used in spin training as it allows the pilot to practice spin recovery techniques before the spin becomes fully developed.

b. Fully Developed Spin

A fully developed, steady-state spin occurs when the aircraft's rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed stabilize, and the flight path becomes nearly vertical.
In this phase, the aircraft’s attitude and rotational rate remain constant from turn to turn, with the aircraft continuing to spin in a steady, consistent motion.

c. Flat Spin

A flat spin is characterized by a nearly level pitch attitude and minimal roll, with the aircraft’s rotation axis close to the aircraft’s center of gravity (CG).
Recovery from a flat spin is extremely difficult and, in some cases, may be impossible due to the lack of effective control surfaces or aerodynamics working against recovery.

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